Revista Panamericana de salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health

English
SYNOPSIS

We are moving away from the year 2000, and the goal of "health for all" remains distant. Economic globalization, which many consider to be one of the most serious threats to health, moves ahead, along with globalization of international health policies. A small number of powerful actors are in charge of setting the agenda, and they relegate to an inferior position the World Health Organization, which has moved away from the goal of "health for all." All of this has helped to promote a neoliberal mentality in the field of health. The People's Health Movement was created with the objective of reestablishing the right to comprehensive health and to development with equity as principal priorities of health policies at the local, national, and international levels. The People's Health Movement uses as a strategy the People's Charter for Health, which was approved at the first People's Health Assembly, which was held in Bangladesh in 2000. The Charter expresses collective concerns and the belief in a better and healthier world as a meeting point in order to promote a world health movement and a call for radical action. In July 2005 the People's Health Movement will hold the People's Health Assembly 2, in the city of Cuenca, Ecuador. The slogan of that meeting will be "The voices of the earth are calling!—let's build a healthy world." Among the topics that will be examined at the meeting are: health as a fundamental human right; militarization and occupation; environmental degradation; emerging and reemerging pandemics; equity, poverty, and health; the importance of cultural diversity; social and political violence; health in the hands of the people; health at work; traditional medicine and bioenergetic medicine; gender; and health sector reform. The objective of the People's Health Movement is to help to reach the Millennium Development Goals and to smooth the path toward attaining health for all, in Latin America and the Caribbean as well as in the rest of the world.

Key words: policy making, health policy, primary health care, Americas.

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Epidemiology and genetics: a strategic alliance in the new millennium?

Although the information derived from biological markers could conceivably be used to overcome some of the problems intrinsic to virtually all epidemiologic study designs—case definition, true exposure level, host susceptibility and resistance to factors of interest, the misclassification of study subjects (false positive and false negative test results), etc.—, we are still unable to resolve all such problems with the tools available at present. Biological markers seem more promising as potential indicators of the degree of susceptibility than as indicators of disease occurrence, an application requiring further technical refinement. Currently biological markers are employed in public health mainly to screen for particular diseases. Unfortunately, these markers have their limitations. For one thing, it is unlikely that they will completely eliminate the problem of false positive and false negative results, since DNA from solid tumors undergoes slight degradation due to necrosis and since genetic markers are susceptible to the effects of exposure to medication, diet, sex, ethnicity, and even the circadian cycle. And even if false positives and negatives were ultimately eliminated, it would be impossible to use many of the analytical tools based on two by two tables, such as the chi squared test, logistic regression, the Poisson regression, Cox' proportional hazards ratio, etc., since such tools rely on comparisons of the number of false positives and negatives in the exposed and non-exposed groups. Finally, albeit no less important, certain ethical issues must be carefully considered before allowing the massive use of human genetic markers, which could lead to violations of the rights of individuals, families, and communities if carried out in an indiscriminate, unregulated fashion. Epidemiology is rapidly broadening its scope, a trend that will continue into the future; new analytical tools will be developed, and the working hypotheses to which such tools will be applied will change. At present the scientific community is paying increased attention to this field of study, but more research and discussion are needed to respond to many of the questions for which we have no satisfactory answers yet.

Key words: epidemiology; genetics, population; biological markers; validity.

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A census of medical genetics services in Argentina

Objective.To describe the medical genetics services in Argentina, in order to help organize a network to coordinate those services, decrease inequity in access to them, and promote the comprehensive development of medical genetics in the country.
Methods. In April–August 2004 a survey was conducted of centers providing medical genetics services in Argentina, looking at their human resources, diagnostic procedures, the services that patients use, and funding. The survey covered service centers that conduct genetic assessment, cytogenetic diagnostic testing, molecular biology testing, and biochemical testing to detect birth defects or genetic disorders. Centers that were devoted exclusively to research were not surveyed.
Results. A total of 134 centers fulfilled the selection criteria for the survey; 84 of them were private services, and the other 50 were publicly managed services, at universities and hospitals. The 50 public facilities had a total of 67 physicians who had studied clinical genetics, plus 133 non-medical laboratory professionals. A majority of the 50 centers performed clinical and cytogenetic diagnoses, with a smaller number performing molecular, biochemical, and prenatal diagnoses. More than 70% of the centers and human resources were located in an area that includes the city of Buenos Aires, the province of Buenos Aires, and the nearby north-central provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fe. The 50 public centers were found mainly in large cities; 10 of the country’s 23 provinces had no public services.
Conclusions. There is a great geographic disparity in the availability of resources as well as wide variability in the diagnostic procedures that are provided in the different service centers. The unequal distribution of the facilities is an organizational problem that will require the application of policies to guarantee minimum services for people in all regions of the country, as well as access to more complex diagnostic procedures.

Español
Objetivo. Caracterizar los servicios de genética médica de Argentina, con el propósito de contribuir a la organización de una red que coordine la actividad asistencial, disminuya la inequidad en el acceso y promueva el desarrollo integral de la genética médica en el país.
Métodos. Se realizó un padrón (abril–agosto de 2004) de los servicios de genética médica de Argentina, por medio de una encuesta sobre recursos humanos, procedimientos diagnósticos, utilización de servicios y financiamiento. El criterio de inclusión fue que los servicios realizaran asesoramiento genético o pruebas diagnósticas citogenéticas, de biología molecular o bioquímicas para la detección de defectos congénitos o enfermedades genéticas. No se consideraron los centros dedicados exclusivamente a la investigación.
Resultados. Cumplieron el criterio de inclusión 134 servicios. De ellos, 84 eran servicios privados y los demás 50 eran servicios públicos en universidades y hospitales. Trabajaban en los servicios públicos un total de 67 médicos con formación en genética y 133 profesionales de laboratorio. La mayor parte de los servicios realizaban diagnóstico clínico y citogenético, con un menor desarrollo del diagnóstico molecular, bioquímico y prenatal. La región Centro tuvo más de 70% de los servicios y de los recursos humanos. En 10 de 23 provincias no se identificaron servicios de gestión pública, los cuales se concentran más bien en las grandes ciudades.
Conclusiones. Los servicios existentes muestran una notable heterogeneidad en su distribución geográfica y amplia variabilidad en cuanto a los procedimientos de diagnóstico ofrecidos. La distribución desigual de los servicios es un problema de organización que requiere la aplicación de políticas que garanticen las prestaciones mínimas para la población de todas las regiones del país, así como el acceso a procedimientos diagnósticos de mayor complejidad.

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The Pan American Health OrganizationÂ’s gender equality policy

The 46th Directing Council of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) approved this past September a document entitled “Proposed PAHO gender equality policy” and urged Member States to implement specific policies accordingly, in collaboration with other government sectors, international organizations, and interested parties from civil society. The approved policy is rooted in principles of gender equality and gender equity, the empowerment of men and women, respect for diversity, and gender mainstreaming. PAHO will integrate and support among its Member States the perspective of gender equality in planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating policies, programs, projects, and research. The aim is, among other things, to attain the highest possible health and well-being for men and women during their whole life cycle, as well as in all popu¬lation groups. Hopefully these measures will help propel the Region toward the attainment of true gender equality.

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Genomic risk and personal responsibility in health

With the advent of genomic research, a new category of risk has emerged—genetic risk—from which an individual cannot be separated. Among the outcomes of this model is a discussion on personal accountability, according to which an individual may both be exempted from events related to certain states of health (“blame it on the genes”) or be blamed for those events (“transmitter of disease”). In addition, the search for genes to explain disease erases the line between what is normal and what is pathological, with a growing tendency towards considering individuals with no or very mild clinical manifestations as being “ill.” The great emphasis on genomics may lead to both an exaggerated attention to genetics rather than social and environmental factors and to a reductionism that favors sociobiological explanations for human behavior. In addition, in this scenario, the right to information may paradoxically stimulate some to consume goods and services in order to prevent a hypothetical illness that could occur at some point in time as a result of genetic predisposition—goods and services that may not be available to everyone. It is essential that such issues be considered with the same urgency with which the genomic paradigm is being developed.

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Health, equity, and the Millennium Development Goals

In September 2000 representatives of 189 countries met for the Millennium Summit, which the United Nations convened in New York City, and adopted the declaration that provided the basis for formulating the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The eight goals are part of a long series of initiatives that governments, the United Nations system, and international financial institutions have undertaken to reduce world poverty. Three of the eight goals deal with health, so the health sector will be responsible for implementing, monitoring, and evaluating measures proposed to meet targets that have been formulated: to reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate in children under 5 years of age between 1990 and 2015; to reduce by three-quarters the maternal mortality rate between 1990 and 2015; and to halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS by the year 2015, as well as to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria, tuberculosis, and other major diseases. The health sector must also work with other parties to achieve targets connected with two other of the goals: to improve access to affordable essential drugs, and to reduce the proportion of persons who do not have safe drinking water. Adopting a strategy focused on the most vulnerable groups—ones concentrated in locations and populations with the greatest social exclusion—would make possible the largest total reduction in deaths among children, thus reaching the proposed target as well as producing greater equity. In the Region of the Americas the principal challenges in meeting the MDGs are: improving and harmonizing health information systems; designing health programs related to the MDGs that bring together the set of services and interventions that have the greatest impact, according to the special characteristics of the populations who are intended to be the beneficiaries; strengthening the political will to support the MDGs; and guaranteeing funding for the measures undertaken to attain the MDGs.

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Challenges facing Caribbean countries 10 years after the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt

At the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) that was held in Cairo, Egypt, in 1994, participants acknowledged that population, economic growth, and sustainable development are concepts that are closely linked, and important strides were made in terms of increased recognition of sexual and reproductive rights. The Programme of Action ratified at that Conference was adopted as a platform for designing national and international policies in the areas of population and development for a period of twenty years. However, in Latin America and the Caribbean all types of obstacles–financial, institutional, and human–still stand in the way of attaining the goals of the Programme of Action, and some governments have established measures that undermine their people's exercise of sexual and reproductive rights. The Caribbean Subregional Meeting to Assess the Implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development 10 Years after its Adoption was held in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, in November of 2003. At the meeting, which was attended by representatives from 20 Caribbean countries and territories, a call was made for more rational use of available resources and for mobilization of additional funds for developing and implementing population and development programs and policies in the Caribbean. The meeting also saw the approval of the Caribbean Declaration, which lays out the challenges that should serve as the roadmap for taking actions to consolidate the progress achieved so far and come closer to attaining the goals established by the ICPD. In the Declaration, the countries and territories of the Caribbean asserted their commitment to continue legislative reforms at the national level while seeking to enforce these reforms in an effort to ensure implementation of the ICPD's Programme of Action and of the Caribbean Plan of Action for Population and Development that was adopted in 1996 by the Economic Community for Latin America and the Caribbean.

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Identifying barriers to food and nutrition policies in Colombia: a study using the Delphi method

OBJECTIVE: To identify the most important barriers to the development and progress of Colombia's National Food and Nutrition Plan (NFNP) (which was enacted in 1996), from the viewpoint of food and nutrition plan planners, implementers, and academicians.
METHODS: The research was carried out in two stages. The first stage consisted of a pilot study in 1998 based on individual interviews with 35 key informants with knowledge of nutrition policies in Colombia, in order to identify possible groups of experts with experience in the development of the NFNP and also to confirm the relevance and feasibility of the research. The second stage consisted of a study using the Delphi method with 77 experts who identified the principal barriers that the NFNP was facing. In a second step in the Delphi process, 58 of the experts took the 10 barriers that had been mentioned most frequently in the first step and then ranked those barriers, using a point scale from 1 to 10. In order to analyze the individual responses overall and by the three groups (planners, implementers, and academicians), we calculated the mean, the median, and the standard deviation of the scores, and we then ranked the barriers according to their median point scores. When median values were the same, we then utilized the higher mean or the smaller standard deviation. We had meetings to discuss those results with the participating experts in order to assess the soundness of our interpretations, to explore the usefulness of the study, and to formulate recommendations.
RESULTS: The five most important barriers identified were: (1) the poor linkage between the NFNP and other social and economic policies, and the lack of consistency with agriculture and foreign policies; (2) the lack of coordination between different sectors and administrative organizations in Colombia; (3) administrative corruption, which was made worse by violence and the lack of security; (4) inequity in the distribution of resources; and (5) the lack of continuity in the commitment by the different sectors that are involved. The experts who attended the sessions where the results were discussed said that their opinions had been interpreted correctly, and they also suggested possible ways to apply the study results and thus improve the operations of the NFNP.
CONCLUSIONS: Food and nutrition policies in Colombia have faced various obstacles, both from outside sources and from within the policies themselves, which can limit their usefulness to society. There is need to create a coordinating body for the NFNP.

Español

OBJETIVOS: Identificar las barreras más importantes al desarrollo del Plan Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición de Colombia (PNAN), tanto desde el punto de vista de sus planificadores y ejecutores, como de los académicos.
MÉTODOS: Se realizó una investigación en dos partes: un estudio piloto basado en entrevistas individuales a 35 informadores clave con conocimiento de las políticas de nutrición en Colombia para identificar los posibles grupos de expertos con experiencia en el desarrollo del PNAN y verificar la pertinencia y factibilidad de la investigación; y un estudio por el método Delfos con la participación de 77 expertos que identificaron las principales barreras al PNAN. Posteriormente, en una segunda etapa del Delfos, 58 de los expertos ordenaron según su importancia las 10 barreras más frecuentemente mencionadas durante la primera etapa, aplicando una puntuación de 1 a 10. Para analizar las respuestas individuales globalmente y por grupos (planeadores y ejecutores del PNAN y académicos) se calcularon la media, la mediana y la desviación estándar de las puntuaciones y se ordenaron las barreras identificadas según los valores de las medianas de las puntuaciones. Cuando los valores de las medianas eran iguales se recurría a la media mayor o a la menor desviación estándar. Los resultados fueron discutidos con los expertos participantes para valorar la fiabilidad de las interpretaciones, explorar la utilidad del estudio y formular recomendaciones.
RESULTADOS: Las cinco barreras más importantes fueron: 1) la desarticulación del PNAN del resto de las políticas sociales y económicas y su falta de correspondencia con las políticas agraria y exterior; 2) la falta de coordinación entre diferentes sectores e instancias de la administración colombiana; 3) la corrupción administrativa, agravada por la violencia y la inseguridad; 4) la falta de equidad en la distribución de los recursos; y 5) la falta de continuidad de los compromisos de los diferentes sectores involucrados. En la sesión en que se discutieron los resultados, los expertos asistentes consideraron correcta la interpretación de sus opiniones y valoraron posibles estrategias para mejorar el funcionamiento del PNAN en el país.
CONCLUSIONES: El desarrollo y la implementación de las políticas de alimentación y nutrición en Colombia han encontrado barreras, tanto externas como dentro de las propias políticas, que pueden limitar su utilidad social. Se propone crear una entidad coordinadora del PNAN en Colombia.

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Neonatal screening for hemoglobinopathies in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

OBJECTIVE: To describe the main results obtained in the first 15 months of neonatal screening for sickle cell disease in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from August 2000 to November 2001.
METHODS: Starting in August 2000, blood samples began to be collected for sickle cell disease screening from all newborns receiving care in primary health care clinics in the state of Rio de Janeiro. The samples were submitted to high-resolution liquid chromatography. If the resulting chromatogram was compatible with sickle cell disease, the child and the parents were referred for diagnostic confirmation and treatment.
RESULTS: Between August 2000 and November 2001, 99 260 newborns were screened. There was one case of homozygous Hb C. On average, one of every 27 newborns who were screened presented sickle cell trait (Hb AS). Sickle cell disease was observed in 83 cases, or one new case in each 1 196 births. The 83 consisted of: 62 Hb S, 18 Hb SC, and 3 Hb SD. One child did not appear for diagnostic confirmation. The 82 children who were followed up by the program presented 15 intercurrent illnesses (upper respiratory infections, fever, splenic sequestration crises, hand-foot syndrome, and vascular occlusion), resulting in seven hospital admissions. Blood transfusions were necessary with 15 children, but none developed alloimmunization. All the other babies were doing well with the use of prophylactic penicillin.
CONCLUSIONS: Our data show the importance of early diagnosis for sickle cell disease, so as to prevent the frequent infectious complications faced by these patients.

Português

OBJETIVO: Descrever os principais resultados do programa de triagem neonatal para a doença falciforme do Estado do Rio de Janeiro em 15 meses de funcionamento (agosto de 2000 a novembro de 2001).
MÉTODOS: A partir de agosto de 2000, amostras de sangue passaram a ser coletadas de todos os recém-nascidos atendidos em postos de atenção básica à saúde no Estado para triagem neonatal da doença falciforme. Essas amostras são submetidas a cromatografia líquida de alta resolução. Se o cromatograma resultante for compatível com a doença falciforme, a criança e seus pais são encaminhados para confirmação diagnóstica e tratamento.
RESULTADOS: De agosto de 2000 a novembro de 2001, 99 260 recém nascidos participaram da triagem. Houve um caso de homozigose para Hb C. Um em cada 27 recém-nascidos triados pelo programa apresentou o traço falciforme (Hb AS). A doença falciforme foi constatada em 83 casos (um caso novo para cada 1 196 nascimentos): 62 Hb S, 18 Hb SC, 3 Hb SD. Uma criança não compareceu para confirmação diagnóstica. As 82 crianças acompanhadas apresentaram 15 intercorrências (infecções de vias aéreas superiores, febre, seqüestro esplênico, síndrome mão-pé e crises de vaso-oclusão), motivando sete internações. Houve necessidade de transfusão sangüínea em 15 crianças, mas nenhuma tornou-se alo-imunizada. Os demais bebês estão evoluindo satisfatoriamente com o uso de penicilina profilática.
CONCLUSÕES: Nossos dados evidenciam a importância do diagnóstico precoce da doença falciforme, de forma a prevenir e evitar as freqüentes complicações infecciosas enfrentadas por esses pacientes.

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Seroepidemiology of hepatitis B and C in Kaingang Indians in the South of Brazil

Objective. To investigate the prevalence of infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) among Kaingang Indians living on the Mangueirinha reservation in the state of Paraná, Brazil.
Methods. The presence of viral markers was investigated in blood samples from 214 volunteers (81 males, 133 females), using immunoenzymatic techniques. The viral markers studied were: antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc), antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), and antibody to hepatitis C virus (anti-HCV). The participants answered a questionnaire on their sociodemographic characteristics, living conditions, personal habits (such as smoking and consuming alcohol or illicit drugs), and history of disease and of vaccination.
Results. The respondents ranged in age from 1 to 90 years; their mean age was 29.85 years. Positivity for anti-HBs was 71.02%, and for anti-HBc it was 15.42%. None of the individuals was positive for HBsAg. Anti-HCV was detected in only one participant, a 30-year-old woman.
Conclusions. There were low prevalences of HBV and HCV infection in the Kaingang population studied. The high prevalence of anti-HBs in younger individuals indicates good immunization coverage. In the adult population, immunity against HBV was probably acquired mainly by contact with the virus.

Português

Objetivo. Investigar a prevalência de infecção pelo vírus da hepatite B e C na população indígena Kaingang da reserva de Mangueirinha, no Estado do Paraná, Brasil.
Método. A presença dos marcadores sorológicos anti-HBc, anti-HBs, AgHBs e anti-VHC foi investigada em amostras de sangue de 214 voluntários (81 do sexo masculino e 133 do sexo feminino) usando técnicas imunoenzimáticas. Os participantes responderam a um questionário sobre os aspectos sociodemográficos, as condições de vida, os hábitos e o histórico de doenças e de vacinação.
Resultados. A média de idade foi de 29,85 anos (1 a 90 anos). Foi observada uma positividade de 71,02% para o marcador anti-HBs e de 15,42% para o anti-HBc. Nenhum caso foi positivo para o marcador AgHBs. Somente um participante, uma mulher de 30 anos, apresentou positividade para anti-VHC.
Conclusão. Os resultados mostram baixa prevalência de infecção pelo VHB e pelo VHC na população Kaingang estudada. A alta prevalência de anti-HBs nas faixas etárias mais baixas indica uma boa abrangência da imunização ativa artificial. Na população adulta, é provável que a imunidade contra o VHB tenha sido adquirida principalmente de forma natural, pelo contato com o vírus.